How many psychology perspectives are there




















Skinner, describes a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened depending on its association with either positive or negative consequences. The strengthening of a response occurs through reinforcement. Skinner described two types of reinforcement: positive reinforcement, which is the introduction of a positive consequence such as food, pleasurable activities, or attention from others, and negative reinforcement, which is the removal of a negative consequence such as pain or a loud noise.

Skinner saw human behavior as shaped by trial and error through reinforcement and punishment, without any reference to inner conflicts or perceptions. In his theory, mental disorders represented maladaptive behaviors that were learned and could be unlearned through behavior modification. In the second half of the 20th century, behaviorism was expanded through advances in cognitive theories.

While behaviorism and cognitive schools of psychological thought may not agree theoretically, they have complemented each other in practical therapeutic applications like cognitive-behavioral therapy CBT , which has been used widely in the treatment of many different mental disorders, such as phobias, PTSD, and addiction. This later gave rise to applied behavior analysis ABA , in which operant conditioning techniques are used to reinforce positive behaviors and punish unwanted behaviors. Cognitive psychology is the school of psychology that examines internal mental processes such as problem solving, memory, and language.

Much of the work derived from cognitive psychology has been integrated into various other modern disciplines of psychological study, including social psychology, personality psychology, abnormal psychology, developmental psychology, educational psychology, and behavioral economics. Cognitive psychology is radically different from previous psychological approaches in that it is characterized by both of the following:.

Cognitive theory contends that solutions to problems take the form of algorithms, heuristics, or insights. Major areas of research in cognitive psychology include perception, memory, categorization, knowledge representation, numerical cognition, language, and thinking. Cognitive psychology is one of the more recent additions to psychological research.

Though there are examples of cognitive approaches from earlier researchers, cognitive psychology really developed as a subfield within psychology in the late s and early s. The development of the field was heavily influenced by contemporary advancements in technology and computer science.

In , Donald Broadbent integrated concepts from human-performance research and the recently developed information theory in his book Perception and Communication, which paved the way for the information-processing model of cognition. Although no one person is entirely responsible for starting the cognitive revolution, Noam Chomsky was very influential in the early days of this movement.

Chomsky — , an American linguist, was dissatisfied with the influence that behaviorism had had on psychology. He is most widely known for his stage theory of cognitive development, which outlines how children become able to think logically and scientifically over time.

As they progress to a new stage, there is a distinct shift in how they think and reason. Jean Piaget Piaget is best known for his stage theory of cognitive development. Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective that rose to prominence in the midth century, drawing on the philosophies of existentialism and phenomenology, as well as Eastern philosophy. It adopts a holistic approach to human existence through investigations of concepts such as meaning, values, freedom, tragedy, personal responsibility, human potential, spirituality, and self-actualization.

The humanistic perspective is a holistic psychological perspective that attributes human characteristics and actions to free will and an innate drive for self-actualization. This approach focuses on maximum human potential and achievement rather than psychoses and symptoms of disorder. It emphasizes that people are inherently good and pays special attention to personal experiences and creativity.

This perspective has led to advances in positive, educational, and industrial psychology, and has been applauded for its successful application to psychotherapy and social issues. Despite its great influence, humanistic psychology has also been criticized for its subjectivity and lack of evidence. In the late s, a group of psychologists convened in Detroit, Michigan, to discuss their interest in a psychology that focused on uniquely human issues, such as the self, self-actualization, health, hope, love, creativity, nature, being, becoming, individuality, and meaning.

Abraham Maslow — is considered the founder of humanistic psychology, and is noted for his conceptualization of a hierarchy of human needs. Self-actualized people, he believed, have more of these peak experiences throughout a given day than others.

At the bottom of the pyramid are the basic physiological needs of a human being, such as food and water.

The next level is safety, which includes shelter and needs paramount to physical survival. The third level, love and belonging, is the psychological need to share oneself with others. The fourth level, esteem, focuses on success, status, and accomplishments.

The top of the pyramid is self-actualization, in which a person is believed to have reached a state of harmony and understanding.

Individuals progress from lower to higher stages throughout their lives, and cannot reach higher stages without first meeting the lower needs that come before them. Carl Rogers — is best known for his person-centered approach, in which the relationship between therapist and client is used to help the patient reach a state of realization, so that they can then help themselves.

The therapist encourages the patient to express their feelings and does not suggest how the person might wish to change. Instead, the therapist uses the skills of active listening and mirroring to help patients explore and understand their feelings for themselves.

Carl Rogers Carl Rogers was one of the early pioneers of humanistic psychology, and is best known for his person-centered approach to therapy. He believed that those raised in an environment of unconditional positive regard have the opportunity to fully actualize themselves, while those raised in an environment of conditional positive regard only feel worthy if they match conditions that have been laid down by others.

Rollo May — was the best known American existential psychologist, and differed from other humanistic psychologists by showing a sharper awareness of the tragic dimensions of human existence. May was influenced by American humanism, and emphasized the importance of human choice. Humanistic psychology is holistic in nature: it takes whole persons into account rather than their separate traits or processes. In this way, people are not reduced to one particular attribute or set of characteristics, but instead are appreciated for the complex beings that they are.

Humanistic psychology allows for a personality concept that is dynamic and fluid and accounts for much of the change a person experiences over a lifetime. The study of psychology has progressed greatly, thanks to Wundt and other pioneers. Over the years, psychologists began to study all aspects of human behavior from personality traits to brain functions. Eventually, the studies began to look at the same human behaviors from various angles including biological, psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, and humanistic perspectives.

The biological approach to psychology focuses on examining our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors from a strictly biological point of view. In this approach, all thoughts, feelings, and behaviors would have a biological cause. The psychodynamic approach to psychology is most well-known for its ties to Sigmund Freud and his followers. This approach includes all theories in psychology that see humans functioning based on the interaction of drives and forces within the person, particularly unconscious and between the different structures of the personality.

Freud developed a collection of theories most of which were based on what his patients told him during therapy that formed the basis of the psychodynamic approach. The psychodynamic approach can be best described in basic assumptions that:.

The cognitive approach to psychology shifts away from conditioned behavior and psychoanalytical notions to the study of how our mind works, how we process information, and how we use that processed information to drive our behaviors.

Freud also believed that much of our behavior is driven by unconscious desires, wishes, and urges. Childhood experiences play a critical role in shaping personality and our behavior as we grow older. While Freud was responsible for originating psychoanalysis, other thinkers also contributed to the psychodynamic perspective. While psychoanalysis is not a dominant school of thought today, the psychodynamic perspective remains an important part of psychology.

During the early part of the 20th century, the school of thought known as behaviorism emerged. The school of thought was focused on studying observable behaviors and making psychology a more scientific pursuit. According to the behavioral perspective, behaviors can be explained by looking at the processes of conditioning and reinforcement. Two of the key ways that behaviors are learned are through the processes known as classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning is the process that was first discovered by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov during his famous studies on the digestive systems of dogs.

He discovered that the dogs had been conditioned to salivate whenever they saw the white coat of his lab assistant. Because the animals associated the white coats with the presentation of food, a learned response was formed. Operant conditioning is the learning process described by the American psychologist B. Operant conditioning involves using reinforcement or punishment as a consequence of a behavior.

Actions followed by reinforcement become more likely to be repeated in the future, while those followed by punishment become less likely to occur in the future. The humanist perspective focuses on looking at human beings in a holistic way. Rather than focusing on dysfunction, humanists take the view that people are innately good and possess an actualizing tendency that leads them to pursue self-actualization.

Those who take a humanist perspective emphasize the importance of free will and allowing people to maximize their full potential. The work of humanistic psychologists Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow are important in this view of behavior. Rogers was the theorist behind client-centered therapy, a non-directional approach that stresses the importance of unconditional positive regard in mental well-being.

Maslow is best known for his famous hierarchy of needs. His hierarchy is often displayed as a pyramid in which the most basic needs lie at the bottom and increasingly complex needs lie higher up toward the peak.

Physiology has played a major role in psychology since the earliest days of the discipline.



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