What makes something a geographical issue

Due to the centrality of geographic maps as a means for spatial representation, however, concepts developed for mapping have had an impact on all forms of spatial representation.

This role as a model and catalyst for visual representation throughout the sciences is clear in Hall's recent popular account of mapping as a research tool used throughout science, as well as the recognition by computer scientists that maps are a fundamental source of many concepts used in scientific visualization Collins, An active field of geographic research on spatial representation involves formalizing the ''language" for visual geographic representation.

Another important field of research involves improved depiction of the Earth's surface. A notable example is the recent advance in matching computational techniques for terrain shading with digital elevation databases covering the conterminous United States see Sidebar 3.

The conventional map is one of many visual representations of space used by geographers and other scientists. As one of a continuum of spatial representations, maps occupy a "fuzzy" category defined by an "abstractness level" horizontal axis and a "scale dimension" vertical axis. Source: After MacEachren , Figure 4. Verbal representation refers to attempts to evoke landscapes through a carefully constructed description in words.

Some of the geographers who have become best known outside the discipline rely almost exclusively on this form of representation. Geographers have drawn new attention to the power of both verbal and visual representations, exploring the premise that every representation has multiple, potentially hidden, and perhaps duplicitous, meanings Gregory, A current field of research linking verbal and visual forms of spatial representation concerns hypermedia documents designed for both research and instructional applications.

The concept of a geographic script analogous to a movie script has been proposed as a strategy for leading people through a complex web of maps, graphics, pictures, and descriptions developed to provide information about a particular issue Monmonier, Mathematical representations include models of space, which emphasize location, regions, and distributions; models of functional association; and models of process, which emphasize spatial interaction and change in place.

Visual maps, of course, are grounded in mathematical models of space, and it can be demonstrated that all map depictions of geographic position are, in essence, mathematical transformations from the Earth to the plane surface of the page or.

The combination of visual and mathematical representation draws on advantages inherent in each see Plate 2. A good example of the link between mathematical and visual representation is provided by the Global Demography Project Tobler et al.

In this project more than 19, digitized administrative polygons and associated population counts covering the entire world were extrapolated to and then converted to spherical cells. Cognitive representation is the way individuals mentally represent information about their environment. Human cognitive representations of space have been studied in geography for more than 25 years. They range from attempts to derive "mental maps" of residential desirability to assessing ways in which knowledge of spatial position is mentally organized, the mechanisms through which this knowledge expands with behavior in environments, and the ways in which environmental knowledge can be used to support behavior in space.

The resulting wealth of knowledge about spatial cognition is now being linked with visual and digital forms of spatial representation. This link is critical in such research fields as designing interfaces for geographic information systems GISs and developing structures for digital geographic databases.

Recent efforts to apply the approaches of cognitive science to modeling human spatial decision making have opened promising research avenues related to way finding, spatial choice, and the development of GIS-based spatial decision support systems. In addition, research about how children at various stages of cognitive development cope with maps and other forms of spatial representation is a key component in efforts to improve geography education.

Digital representation is perhaps the most active and influential focus of representational research because of the widespread use of GISs and computer mapping. Geographers have played a central role in the development of the representational schemes underpinning GISs and computer mapping systems.

Geographers working with mathematicians at the U. Census Bureau in the s were among the first to recognize the benefits of topological structures for vector-based digital representations of spatial data. It has been adapted to computer mapping through an innovative system for linking topological and metrical geographic representations.

Related work by geographers and other scientists at the U. Geographers working in GIS research have investigated new approaches to raster grid-based data structures. Raster structures are compatible with the structure of data in remote sensing images, which continue to be a significant source of input data for GIS and other geographic applications. Raster structures are also useful for overlying spatial data.

Developments in vector and raster data structures have been linked through an integrated conceptual model that, in effect, is eliminating the raster-vector dichotomy Peuquet, This research is particularly important because solutions to key generalization problems are required before the rapidly increasing array of digital georeferenced data can be integrated through GISs to support multiscale geographic analysis.

Generalization in the digital realm has proved to be a difficult problem because different scales of analysis demand not only more or less detailed information but also different kinds of information represented in fundamentally different ways. Increasingly, the aspects of spatial representation discussed above are being linked through digital representations.

Transformations from one representation to another e. This reliance on digital representation as a framework for other forms of representation brings with it new questions concerning the impact of digital representation on the construction of geographic knowledge. One recent outgrowth of the spatial representation traditions of geography is a multidisciplinary effort in geographic information science.

This field emphasizes coordination and collaboration among the many disciplines for which geographic information and the rapidly emerging technologies associated with it are of central importance. The University Consortium for Geographic Information Science UCGIS , a nonprofit organization of universities and other research institutions, was formed to facilitate this interdisciplinary effort.

UCGIS is dedicated to advancing the understanding of geographic processes and spatial relationships through improved theory, methods, technology, and data. This survey of geography's perspectives illustrates the variety of topics pursued by geography as a scientific discipline, broadly construed. The methods and approaches that geographers have used to generate knowledge and understanding of the world about them—that is, its epistemologies—are similarly broad.

The post-World War II surge in theoretical and conceptual geography, work. Extensive use is still made of this approach, especially in studying environmental dynamics but also in spatial analysis and representation. It is now recognized, however, that the practice of such research frequently diverges from the ideals of positivism. Many of these ideals—particularly those of value neutrality and of the objectivity of validating theories by hypothesis testing—are in fact unattainable Cloke et al.

Recognition of such limitations has opened up an intense debate among geographers about the relative merits of a range of epistemologies that continue to enliven the field Gregory, Of particular interest, at various points in this debate, have been the following:.

Geographers debate the philosophical foundations of their research in ways similar to debates among other natural scientists, social scientists, and humanists, although with a particular emphasis on geographical views of the world and on representation. These debates have not been restricted to the philosophical realm but have had very practical consequences for substantive research, often resulting in contrasting theoretical interpretations of the same phenomenon.

For example, neopositivist and structural accounts of the development of settlement systems have evolved through active engagement with one another, and debates about how to assess the environmental consequences of human action have ranged from quantitative cost-benefit calculations to attempts to compare and contrast instrumental with local and indigenous interpretations of the meaning and significance of nature.

In subsequent chapters we have not attempted to mark these different perspectives, choosing instead to stress the phenomena studied rather than the approaches taken. We attempt selectively to include leading researchers from different perspectives working on a particular topic, to the extent that their work can be constituted as scientific in the broad sense that we use that term see Sidebar 1.

While we recognize that different perspectives frequently lead to intense debates engaging very different views of the same phenomenon, there is no space in this report to detail these debates. Such often vigorous interchanges and differences strengthen geography as both a subject and a discipline, however, reminding researchers that different approaches may be relevant for different kinds of questions and that the selection of any approach shapes both the kind of research questions asked and the form the answers take, as well as the answers themselves.

As political, economic, and environmental issues increasingly spread across the globe, the science of geography is being rediscovered by scientists, policymakers, and educators alike. Geography has been made a core subject in U. Rediscovering Geography presents a broad overview of geography's renewed importance in a changing world. Through discussions and highlighted case studies, this book illustrates geography's impact on international trade, environmental change, population growth, information infrastructure, the condition of cities, the spread of AIDS, and much more.

The committee examines some of the more significant tools for data collection, storage, analysis, and display, with examples of major contributions made by geographers. Rediscovering Geography provides a blueprint for the future of the discipline, recommending how to strengthen its intellectual and institutional foundation and meet the demand for geographic expertise among professionals and the public.

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Walk around your neighborhood and return home safely. Find your car in a parking lot or building. Walk around your house in the dark without stumbling into furniture. Find your way back to your hotel in a strange city. Know where places of recreation can be found. Select a sports team to follow. Decide which newspaper to buy. Appreciate the international interactions and flows of goods that keep fresh produce daily in your favorite supermarket.

Know whether New York is north or south of Washington, D. Appreciate why it's difficult to build houses on steep slopes with unstable soils. Wonder why people continue to live in places where they experience floods or hurricanes or tornadoes or fires or earthquakes or emissions from chemical or nuclear industrial plants. A Location Problem Where did I park my car? Overlaying sets of information Searching for a place to live is a necessary activity for all people.

Where am I? Taking your kids to school Learning about your neighborhood is something we all have to do. I am very good at drawing a map so guests can find my home. I usually use a map when driving to a new destination. When leaving a building, I always know which way to turn. When traveling, I take shortcuts as frequently as possible. I have no difficulty in naming the states which border a given state. I am very good at remembering the distances between major cities. I have a very good "mental map" of my local environment.

I know the location of all the major landmarks in my city. I am very good at identifying familiar objects on an aerial photograph. I am very good at recognizing landmarks from an airplane window. I rarely get lost when walking in a new place. I always take the same route when taking my children to school. Geospatial Newsletters Keep up to date with the latest geospatial trends!

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GIS can also illustrate human struggles from a geographic perspective, such as the interactive online map published by the New York Times in May that showed building foreclosure rates in various regions around the New York City area. The enormous possibilities for producing computerized maps and diagrams that can help us understand environmental and social problems have made geographic visualization an increasingly important specialty within geography.

This geospatial information is in high demand by just about every institution, from government agencies monitoring water quality to entrepreneurs deciding where to locate new businesses. Regional Geography Regional geographers take a somewhat different approach to specialization, directing their attention to the general geographic characteristics of a region. A regional geographer might specialize in African studies, observing and documenting the people, nations, rivers, mountains, deserts, weather, trade, and other attributes of the continent.

There are different ways you can define a region. You can look at climate zones, cultural regions, or political regions. Often regional geographers have a physical or human geography specialty as well as a regional specialty. Regional geographers may also study smaller regions, such as urban areas. A regional geographer may be interested in the way a city like Shanghai, China, is growing.

They would study transportation, migration , housing, and language use, as well as the human impact on elements of the natural environment, such as the Huangpu River. Whether geography is thought of as a discipline or as a basic feature of our world, developing an understanding of the subject is important.

Some grasp of geography is essential as people seek to make sense of the world and understand their place in it. Thinking geographically helps people to be aware of the connections among and between places and to see how important events are shaped by where they take place.

Photograph by Poras Chaudhary , MyShot. Gazetteer A gazetteer is a geographic dictionary. Gazetteers, which have existed for thousands of years, usually contain some sort of map and a set of information.

Some gazetteers may contain a list of capital cities or areas where a specific resource is found. Other gazetteers may contain information about the local population, such as languages spoken, money used, or religious beliefs. He was scheduled to fly back to Long Beach. Old Maps People have been making maps for thousands of years.

One of the oldest known maps was found near the city of Kirkuk, Iraq. Most geographers say it dates from BCE. It is a palm-sized block of clay depicting an area with two hills and a stream. Some geographers think the stream is a canal made by people for irrigation.

Geographers have identified one of the towns on the map. However, they are not sure exactly what the hand-held map represents. Ancient maps could also be quite large. It is a map of a busy city, complete with crowded housing and even an erupting volcano. However, some scientists believe this "map" is decorative and not an accurate representation of what was there. The Earth is the only place in the known universe that supports life.

United States Geological Survey primary source for science about the Earth, its natural and living resources, natural hazards, and the environment. The audio, illustrations, photos, and videos are credited beneath the media asset, except for promotional images, which generally link to another page that contains the media credit.

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You cannot download interactives. Search through these resources to discover more about unique landforms and landscapes around the world. Landforms are natural and distinctive features. Explore how they show up in various landscapes. These resources can be used to teach middle schoolers more about the natural world, its distinctive features, and landscapes. A political boundary is an imaginary line separating one political unit, such as a country or state, from another.

Sometimes these align with a natural geographic feature like a river to form a border or barrier between nations. Occasionally, two countries may contest where a particular border is drawn. These disputes might arise due to a natural resource both groups want, like in the case of Sudan and South Sudan, or in an attempt to gain more political power, as in the case of Pakistan and India in the Kashmir region.

In response to demands for more and better instruction in geography, a set of voluntary national standards for geography education at the kindergarten through grade 12 K levels has been developed by a coalition of geographers and other educators Geography Education Standards Project, In addition, geography alliances have been formed by the National Geographic Society in all 50 states to help school teachers become more effective geography instructors.

The College Board is also adding a course and examination in geography to its Advanced Placement Program. These initiatives reflect an understanding that geography is not a luxury in a school curriculum. Instead, it is a necessary component of any reform initiative aimed at preparing students for the challenges of the twenty-first century. In the Bush administration convened an education summit of the nation's governors at which they agreed that new goals needed to be established for American education.

They determined that teaching and learning at the K level should focus on a limited number of specific core subjects, including geography. Ultimately, national education goals were incorporated into legislation—the Educate America Act, which became public law in The act specifically included geography as a core subject, not only because geographic literacy was deemed to be important but also because geography instruction would be a vehicle for increasing classroom attention to contemporary issues and for integrating the content and skills associated with other core subjects.

Given the fundamental geographic underpinnings of so many critical issues facing society today, there is a clear need for an assessment of the role of geography in contemporary America. To provide such an assessment, this report turns first to a consideration of the discipline's perspectives and techniques Chapters 3 and 4.

This is followed by an examination of the relevance of the discipline in the scientific and policy making arenas Chapters 5 and 6. The report then concludes with a discussion of the challenges facing the discipline Chapter 7 and the adjustments that are needed Chapter 8 if geography is to respond to the demands being placed on it by scientists, policy makers, educators, and the private sector.

As political, economic, and environmental issues increasingly spread across the globe, the science of geography is being rediscovered by scientists, policymakers, and educators alike. Geography has been made a core subject in U. Rediscovering Geography presents a broad overview of geography's renewed importance in a changing world.

Through discussions and highlighted case studies, this book illustrates geography's impact on international trade, environmental change, population growth, information infrastructure, the condition of cities, the spread of AIDS, and much more.

The committee examines some of the more significant tools for data collection, storage, analysis, and display, with examples of major contributions made by geographers. Rediscovering Geography provides a blueprint for the future of the discipline, recommending how to strengthen its intellectual and institutional foundation and meet the demand for geographic expertise among professionals and the public.

Based on feedback from you, our users, we've made some improvements that make it easier than ever to read thousands of publications on our website. Jump up to the previous page or down to the next one. Also, you can type in a page number and press Enter to go directly to that page in the book.

Switch between the Original Pages , where you can read the report as it appeared in print, and Text Pages for the web version, where you can highlight and search the text. To search the entire text of this book, type in your search term here and press Enter. Ready to take your reading offline?

Click here to buy this book in print or download it as a free PDF, if available. Do you enjoy reading reports from the Academies online for free? Sign up for email notifications and we'll let you know about new publications in your areas of interest when they're released. Get This Book. Visit NAP. Looking for other ways to read this? No thanks. Suggested Citation: "2 Geography and Critical Issues.

Page 17 Share Cite. Economic Health. Page 18 Share Cite. Environmental Degradation. Page 19 Share Cite. Ethnic Conflict. Page 20 Share Cite. Figure 2. Source: Graf Page 21 Share Cite. Health Care. Page 22 Share Cite. Source: After Jordan Page 23 Share Cite.

Ever since the source of a cholera epidemic was identified by mapping the distribution of cholera cases in nineteenth-century London, geographic analysis has been an important Figure 2. Source: Armstrong et al.